0. Kata Pengantar
Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide present detailed information about current English usage, some of which will not be found in other grammar texts. Although reference is made to spoken English, the emphasis of this book is on written English, both formal and informal. An accompanying workbook is available to help students develop habits of correct English.
Modern English: adalah sebuah buku referensi pemandu yang praktis yang menyediakan informasi yang rinci tentang bahasa Inggris yang sekarang digunakan, beberapa di antara isinya tidak akan ditemukan dalam buku teks tatabahasa yang lain.Walaupun referensi ini dibuat untuk kemampuan berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris, tekanan buku ini adalah bahasa Inggris dalam tulisan, baik resmi maupun informal. Buku latihan yang menyertai ini adalah untuk menolong mahasiswa mengembangkan kebiasaan berbahasa Inggris dengan benar.
This reference text is the product of fifteen years experience with foreign and American college students, at Queens College is New York City, at New York University, and at University of Hawaii. It is also the product of a much longer period of research in modern and traditional English grammar, current English usage, and general linguistics.
Buku acuan ini adalah hasil pengalaman selama lima belas tahun dengan mahasiswa luar dan dalam Negeri Amerika, di Queens Colleges yang ada di New York City, di New York University, dan di University of Hawaii.Juga hasil penelitian yang jauh lebih lama dalam tatabahasa modern dan tradisional Inggris, Bahasa Inggris yang digunakan sekarang, dan linguistik umum.
Modern English represents a synthesis of the old and the new. The conceptual framework for the book has been determined by modern grammatical theories (both structural and transformational) because I believe they present a clearer and more accurate picture of the English grammatical system than the older views, which were often patterned on Latin grammar rather than on English grammar. The facts of usage themselves, however, have been checked against the works of earlier grammarians such as Curme, Jespersen, and Poutsma, as well as against modern books on usage.
Modern English melambangkan sintesis dari tata bahasa yang lama dan yang baru.Kerangka konseptual untuk buku ini sudah ditentukan oleh teori gramatikal yang modern (baik struktural maupun transformational) karena saya yakin mereka menghadirkan (buku yang modern) dengan sistem gramatikal Inggris yang lebih jelas dan lebih tepat daripada pandangan yang lebih tua, yang sering menjadi teladan tatabahasa dari semua tatabahasa Inggris. Faktanya penggunaan itu sendiri, bagaimanapun, sudah diperiksa pada karya ahli tatabahasa yang lebih awal seperti Curme, Jespersen, dan Poutsma, sebagaimana digunakan pada buku yang modern.
In general, American usage is recorded in this book; however, differences between American usage and British usage have been pointed out. Also, different levels and varieties of usage have been accounted.
Secara umum, Penggunaan tata bahasa oleh orang Amerika dicatat di buku ini, tetapi, perbedaan antara penggunaan bahasa Inggris Amerika dan penggunaan bahasa Inggris di British juga ditunjukkan, serta tingkat dan jenis perbedaan penggunaannya juga diterangkan.
In the preparation this book, I had in mind especially the practical needs of advanced learners of English as a foreign language, both in English speaking countries and elsewhere. For this reason there is a heavy concentration on grammatical usage that continue to trouble foreign students articles, verb forms, prepositions and idioms, and such complex structures as dependent clauses and verbal constructions. Also, word order, which modern linguists have been emphasizing as an important feature of English grammatical structure, is dealt with some length.
Dalam persiapan buku ini, saya berpikir khususnya keperluan yang praktis kuntuk emajuan belajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing, baik di negara yang berbicara Inggris dan di tempat lain. Untuk itulah ada konsentrasi yang berat atas penggunaan grammar yang selalu menyulitkan mahasiswa asing, seperti menggunakan artikel, bentuk kata kerja, preposisi dan idiom, dan struktur yang kompleks seperti dependent clause dan verbal construction (bahasa lisan). Juga, urutan kata, yang sudah ditekankan oleh ahli bahasa modern sebagai ciri-ciri penting dalam struktur gramatikal bahasa Inggris, juga disajikan dengan panjang lebar.
Native speakers of English should also find modern English valuable because of its realistic description of the English language, which takes into account the many complexities of the language that often do not fit into the simple generalization made by most grammar books, whether traditional or modern.
Pembicara asli yang bahasa Inggris juga sebaiknya membaca Modern English yang berharga karena buku ini berisi deskripsi realistis dari bahasa Inggris, yang memperhitungkan bahasa yang rumit yang sering tidak masuk dalam penjelasan umum secara sederhana yang dibuat dalam kebanyakan buku tata bahasa, baik yang tradisional atau modern.
The grammatical information contained in this text has been presented in the simple possible order, part of speech, clauses, verbal constructions.
Chapters one to eight, parts of speech, have been influenced by concepts from structural linguistics, that word in sentence can be classified according to their form and / or the way the pattern in a sentence.
Informasi grammar yang terdapat dalam buku teks ini sudah presentasikan dalam kalimat yang sesederhana mungkin, bagian-bagian kalimat, klausa-kalusa, verbal construction. Bab satu sampai delapan berisi bagian-bagian kalimat, yang sudah dipengaruhi oleh konsep dari struktur linguistik, kata yang ada kalam kalimat dapat digolongkan menurut bentuknya dan/atau pola dalam kalimat.
I differ from those structural linguists who use form alone as the basic creation, and from those who make two-fold classification of parts of speech. One according to form and one according to syntactic function. Rather, I follow the practice of many recent college English handbooks of considering function as the basic criterion for classifying part of speech. However, I include in my description of each part of speech all the structural characteristics that can be observed as a word patterns in a sentence, the function, position, form, and the markers that signal a part of speech.
Saya berbeda dengan ahli struktur bahasa yang menggunakan bentuk tersendiri sebagai dasar pembuatan suatu kalimat, dan yang membuat klasifikasi bagian-bagian dari kalimat. Satu menurut bentuknya dan yang satu menurut fungsi sintaksisnya. Rasanya, saya mengikuti praktek dari banyak orang yang berpegang pada English handbooks yang ada di perguruan tinggi dengan mempertimbangkan kepada fungsinya sebagai dasar pembentuk untuk menggolongkan bagian-bagian kalimat. Tetapi, saya memasukkan di dalam deskripsi saya masing-masing bagian kalimat dari semua sifat struktur yang bisa tinjau sebagai pola di dalam kalimat, fungsinya, posisinya, bentuknya, dan tanda baca yang dari bagian-bagian kalimat.
For the sake of simplicity of presentation, I have included a description of structure words - determiners, auxiliaries, intensifiers, etc. - under the part of speech where they have been traditionally classified, however, I have pointed out their role in signaling a structure. Also, because my basic criterion was functional, I have followed the traditional practice of labeling the prepositions and conjunctions as parts of speech because of their connective function, but have treated them differently from the other parts of speech.
Untuk tambahan dari presentasi yang sederhana, saya sudah memasukkan deskripsi dari struktur kata - determiners, kata-kata pembantu, kata-kata penguat, dll. – sedang dalam part of speech (bagian-bagian kalimat) itu mereka sudah menyusun menurut klasifikasinya secara tradisional, tetapi, saya sudah menunjukkan tugas mereka dengan memberi isyarat dari sebuah struktur bahasa.Juga, karena saya membuat ketentuan dasar berdasarkan fungsinya, saya sudah mengikuti kebiasaan tradisional memasukkan preposisi dan kata sambung sebagai bagian-bagian dari kalimat karena fungsinya sebagai kata sambung, tetapi sudah dilakukan berlainan dari part of speech.
Chapter Ten to Twelve, clauses and verbal constructions, are based important concept from transformational grammar - that most complex syntactic structures are derived from simple basic sentences. In the description of clauses and verbal constructions, therefore, the changes from the original subject-verb-complement base are pointed out. This kind of description helps the learner become aware of how such structures serve as grammatical shapes for predications. In addition, other features of usage in connection with each structure are given-position, punctuation, level and variety of usage, possible semantic content. Thus the description goes beyond grammar to the larger area of writing where stylistic choices are involved.
The appendix to modern English gives rules for spelling and for punctuation. It also includes Latin and Greek roots and prefixes whit their meanings and with examples.
Chapter sepuluh sampai ke Dua Belas, adalah klausa dan verbal construction, didasarkan konsep yang penting dari transformasi tatabahasa - bahwa kebanyakan struktur sintaksis yang kompleks berasal dari kalimat dasar yang sederhana. Pada deskripsi klausa dan verbal construction, oleh karenanya, pergantian dari subyek asli -kata kerja-complement (pelengkap) adalah ditunjukkan.Deskripsi seperti ini menolong orang yang belajar menjadi mengerti bagaimana fungsi struktur seperti itu sebagai bentuk gramatikal untuk predikat.Juga, feature (roman) penggunaan lain yang berhubungan dengan masing-masing struktur diberitahukan- apa posisinya, pemakaian tanda baca, tingkat dan jenis penggunaan, kemumgkinan isi semantiknya.Dengan begitu deskripsi bertujuan mengarahkan tatabahasa ke dalam bahasa tulisan yang lebih besar di mana pilihan gaya sangat terlibat. Lampiran pada modern English memberikan peraturan untuk ejaan dan untuk pemakaian tanda baca.Juga memasukkan bahasa Latin, dan bahasa yang berakar dari Yunani, dan awalan dan arti-artinya, juga dengan contohnya.
The workbooks that accompany Modern English are correlated with the chapters in this reference text. The exercise on the part of speech concentrate on word forms, position, and other problems connected with the use of a particular part of speech. The exercises on the syntactic structures are of a transformational type. Students combine sentences or clauses in order to become aware of the changes from the subject-verb-complement core and in order to practice using correct introductory words for structure. They are also given practice in such matters as the position and punctuation of the structure. The purpose of these exercises is to enable student to write not only correct but effective sentences, and to prepare them for the next stages of writing, the development of the paragraph and the entire essay.
Buku latihan yang menyertai Modern English dihubungkan dengan bab-bab yang ada dalam referensi ini.Latihan atas pada part of speech difokuskan pada bentuk kata, posisinya, dan masalah lain berhubungan dengan penggunaan secara khusus sebagian khusus dari part of speech. Penggunaan atas tipe struktur sintaksis transformational. Mahasiswa menggabungkan kalimat atau klausa supaya mengerti akan penggantian dari subyek-kata kerja-kata pelengkap yang inti dan untuk berlatih memakai kalimat pendahuluan yang benar secara struktur.Mereka juga diberi latihan dalam hal struktur fungsi kata, posisi dan pemakaian tanda baca.Maksud penggunaan ini akan memungkinkan mahasiswa untuk menulis tak hanya kalimat yang benar tetapi juga efektif, dan untuk menyiapkan mereka untuk tahap berikutnya dalam tulis-menukis, membangun paragraf dan membuat karangan.
Many thanks are due to Milton G. Saltzer, associate Director of the American Institute, New York University, for his careful reading of the manuscript of this book, for his valuable suggestions for making this book more useful, and most of all, for his kind encouragement. I am also indebted to Lawrence Terzian, of the English Language Institute, Queens College, New York, for his helpful comments on the manuscript.
Banyak terima kasih kepada Milton G. Saltzer, Direktur asosiasi Institut Amerika, New York University, yang telah meneliti naskah buku ini, untuk saran yang berharga karena membuat buku ini lebih berguna, dan semua orang yang telah memberikan dorongan yang baiknya.Saya juga berhutang budi kepada Lawrence Terzian, di Institut Bahasa Inggris, Queens College, New York, yang telah memberi komentan atas naskah ini.
Marcella frank
New York, New York
Kamis, 13 Maret 2008
1. Introduction to Part of Speech
English sentences consist of predications-something is said, or predicated, about a subject. The main grammatical divisions of a sentence are therefore the subject and the predicate.
Subject The boy (Who or what is being talked about)
Predicate threw the ball into the water. (What is being said about the subject)
Subject The boy (Who or what is being talked about)
Predicate threw the ball into the water. (What is being said about the subject)
15. Noun Clauses
Change from full subject-predicate form
In a noun clause, the full subject and predicate are retained, but the structure is changed by addition of a special word order, or by both. These changed permit the noun clause to fill the same positions and to serve the same functions as nouns.
Types and functions of noun clauses
Noun clauses may be classified according to the kind
In a noun clause, the full subject and predicate are retained, but the structure is changed by addition of a special word order, or by both. These changed permit the noun clause to fill the same positions and to serve the same functions as nouns.
Types and functions of noun clauses
Noun clauses may be classified according to the kind
16. Participial Phrases
Verbal Constructions
With the participial phrases we begin the description of the verbal constructions. Other verbal contractions that will be taken up in the following chapters are gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute contractions.
Verbal constructions function as parts of speech other than verbs, usually as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. In these constructions the elements of simple sentences are more changed in
With the participial phrases we begin the description of the verbal constructions. Other verbal contractions that will be taken up in the following chapters are gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and absolute contractions.
Verbal constructions function as parts of speech other than verbs, usually as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. In these constructions the elements of simple sentences are more changed in
17. Gerund Phrases
Change from full subject-predicate form
The verb in gerund phrase is reduced to participial forms way function as gerund except the-ed past participle; the most common form, however, is the-ing present participle.
The subject of a gerund may be found in another part of the sentence or it may be understood. A subject that is contained within the gerund phrase takes inflected possessive form, prepositional form, or unchanged form. The object of a gerund is unchanged or is contained within an of phrases. By means of such changes in the nominal elements of a simple sentence, these elements may be strung along after the verb as prepositional phrases. Thus, the simple sentence The hunters shot the birds can be come the gerund phrase The shooting of the birds (original object) by the hunters (original subject).
These changes from subject-predicate form also permit the gerund phrase to be embedded as a noun within another predication-The shooting of the birds by the hunters cause her great distress. The gerund functions as noun head of the gerund phrase, the transformed subject and object as adjectival modifiers.
Nominal functions of gerund phrases
The verb in gerund phrase is reduced to participial forms way function as gerund except the-ed past participle; the most common form, however, is the-ing present participle.
The subject of a gerund may be found in another part of the sentence or it may be understood. A subject that is contained within the gerund phrase takes inflected possessive form, prepositional form, or unchanged form. The object of a gerund is unchanged or is contained within an of phrases. By means of such changes in the nominal elements of a simple sentence, these elements may be strung along after the verb as prepositional phrases. Thus, the simple sentence The hunters shot the birds can be come the gerund phrase The shooting of the birds (original object) by the hunters (original subject).
These changes from subject-predicate form also permit the gerund phrase to be embedded as a noun within another predication-The shooting of the birds by the hunters cause her great distress. The gerund functions as noun head of the gerund phrase, the transformed subject and object as adjectival modifiers.
Nominal functions of gerund phrases
18. Infinitive Phrases
Change from full subject-predicate form
In this type of verbal construction, the verb is reduced to to infinitive form. The subject of the infinitive phrase may be implied or it may be found elsewhere in the sentence, often in a preceding prepositional phrase. The object is also sometimes found in a structure before the infinitive phrase.
By means of these changes in the subject-verb-complement core, the infinitive phrase may function, not as the main verb of a clause, but as another part of speech-either as a noun, adjective or adverb.
Subjects in infinitive phrases
In most cases, the subject of the infinitive phrases denotes an animate being, especially a person. In some sentences, however the subject may represent a thing oe an idea.
In this type of verbal construction, the verb is reduced to to infinitive form. The subject of the infinitive phrase may be implied or it may be found elsewhere in the sentence, often in a preceding prepositional phrase. The object is also sometimes found in a structure before the infinitive phrase.
By means of these changes in the subject-verb-complement core, the infinitive phrase may function, not as the main verb of a clause, but as another part of speech-either as a noun, adjective or adverb.
Subjects in infinitive phrases
In most cases, the subject of the infinitive phrases denotes an animate being, especially a person. In some sentences, however the subject may represent a thing oe an idea.
19. Absolute Contructions
The absolute construction does not occur as often as the other verbal constructions, but its use in common enough to warrant more attention than it has received in most grammar books. Although many grammarians claim the absolute construction is found chiefly in literary English, actually it occurs just as frequently an conversational English.
20. Abstrac Noun Phrases
Not all abstract nouns serve to form abstract noun phrases. The term abstract noun as it is being used for this construction does not include class nouns for concrete objects, but only those nouns representing changed forms of important element of simple sentences.
Change from full subject-predicate form
In abstract noun phrases, verbs and predicate adjective are changed to nouns that function as the grammatical center of the construction.
Change from full subject-predicate form
In abstract noun phrases, verbs and predicate adjective are changed to nouns that function as the grammatical center of the construction.
21. Appositive Noun and Adjective Phrases
Grammar books have paid little attention to the appositive phrase as a structure derived from a full sentence, probably because it retains only a single element of a simple sentence. For this reason, too, a speaker or writer might not always think of using an appositive phrase as reduction of a full sentence. Since it is important that he should have at his command every structure that provides a grammatical shape for his ideas, he should not overlook this additional means of including a subject-predicate idea within a sentence.
22. Appendix
Punctuation related to style and sentence structure
Colon (:): Anticipates what follows (formal usage)
1. The second clause explains the first. There is no only one way for the country to avert financial catastrophe: the government must declare a period of great austerity.
2. Before a list (especially if anticipated by the following). Our office would like to requisition the following: 3 dozen stenography notebooks, 5 dozen pencil, 2 reams of typing paper.
3. Before an appositive (for greater emphasis). She has always cared about only one person: herself.
4. Before a formal or long quotation. We quote from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address: Fourscore and seven years ago our forefathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all man are created equal.
Colon (:): Anticipates what follows (formal usage)
1. The second clause explains the first. There is no only one way for the country to avert financial catastrophe: the government must declare a period of great austerity.
2. Before a list (especially if anticipated by the following). Our office would like to requisition the following: 3 dozen stenography notebooks, 5 dozen pencil, 2 reams of typing paper.
3. Before an appositive (for greater emphasis). She has always cared about only one person: herself.
4. Before a formal or long quotation. We quote from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address: Fourscore and seven years ago our forefathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all man are created equal.
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